The English theologian Duns Scotus developed an original philosophy in opposition to Thomas Aquinas. His metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics have had a profound impact on medieval and modern philosophy, especially through his concepts of individuation and unity, which pushed the boundaries between theology and philosophy.
The ideas of the English theologian Duns Scotus are so esoteric and specialized that he has been called a philosopher’s philosopher. Rather than simply presenting theories, Scotus focused on delving deeply into philosophical traditions and drawing new insights from them. His methodology did not end with a mere critique of past ideas, but rather with a deep dive into the philosophical tradition, drawing new insights from it. His methodology did not end with a mere critique of past ideas, but rather with the insights gained from that critique as the basis for a new theory. Thomas Aquinas, the famous 13th-century theologian, was no exception. The debate between Aquinas and Scotus formed an important pillar of medieval philosophy and caused a stir in the academic world of the time. Much of Scotus’s thought stood in opposition to that of Thomas Aquinas. This was due to their fundamentally different approaches to theology, with Scotus favoring a more intuitive and straightforward approach, while Aquinas emphasized logic and systematic structure.
Although his death at the age of 42 prevented him from completing many of his theories, Scotus’ philosophical legacy had a profound impact on later medieval thinkers. His arguments and thinking have influenced many later philosophers. In particular, his logical rigor and metaphysical inquiry provided an important foundation for the development of modern philosophy. While it would be impossible to do justice to his vast body of thought in this article, we’ll take a cursory look at his logic, epistemology, psychophilosophy, ethics, and theology.
In epistemology, Scotus’s view of the scope of what the intellect could explore was much broader than Aquinas’s, even if he was a caveat emptor. This expansion of the intellect’s scope gives us a glimpse into how Scotus views human reason. Whereas Aquinas saw the object of the intellect in the temporal world as the nature of material objects, Scotus’ intellect was powerful enough to encompass all beings, both heavenly and earthly. This stemmed from his intention to unify theology and metaphysics, and was part of his attempt to see the material and immaterial worlds as one coherent system. Furthermore, he attributed direct perception of objects themselves to the intellect. This expansion of perception reveals Scotus’s originality and demonstrates his philosophical interest in individual beings. However, as a result of expanding the realm of what the intellect can explore, the level of certainty it can reach is significantly lowered. This suggests that he considered epistemological skepticism and shows the depth of his philosophical thought.
Duns Scotus defines the subject of metaphysics as the inquiry into being as being. This definition goes beyond simply exploring the nature of being, and includes attempts to explain how being is real. Here, Scotus broadens the scope of his metaphysics beyond previous metaphysics by including the Christian God in this category of being. This reflects Scotus’ attempt to bring metaphysics and theology together, and represents a philosophical innovation. However, it can also be argued that he narrows the scope to some extent by asserting that the attributes of the divine are not knowable by reason, thus moving into the realm of theology. This theological approach suggests that his metaphysics is more than just a philosophical argument; it is rooted in theological beliefs.
An important thesis in Scotus’ account of metaphysics is that transcendental predicates such as being and good are not analogical but monadic. This shows how Scotus understood the relationship between God and creatures, and plays an important role in his philosophical system. What this means is that if it is possible for humans to speak of the gods in any way, there are some words that apply equally to creatures and gods. This leads to the conclusion that even though human language about God is limited, knowledge of God is not completely impossible.
In sum, within any concrete material entity are all these separate parts, plus not only the parts but also the relations between them. This reveals Scotus’ unique view of reality and shows the depth of his philosophical thinking. And when they come together, they have the property of being a whole. These properties of the whole can be understood as a new level of being, not just a collection of parts. As to whether we can distinguish these things, Scotus argues that we can. This shows that his philosophy goes beyond mere logical reasoning and is closely connected to practical perception.
Scotus’s psychological philosophy is also at odds with Aquinas’s in many ways. Scotus believed that the human mind does not simply reflect the image of God, but is capable of exploring God through its own perceptions and understanding. First of all, Aquinas believed that there is no purely intellectual perception of objects. This reflects Aquinas’s limited view of the human intellect, which Scotus sought to move beyond and explore the infinite possibilities of the human intellect. His reasoning was that if objectification is achieved by substance, as Aristotle thought, then an intellectual mind independent of substance cannot perceive it. This argument is one of the most important in medieval philosophy, and it continues to be addressed in later philosophical discussions.
To summarize Scotus’ ethical theory. His ethics goes beyond simply laying out moral norms to explore the complex relationship between human free will and divine law. There are limits to our ability to reason about morality, and the concept of sin is expressed outwardly. This shows how his moral philosophy understands the tension between human behavior and divine command. This shows how his moral philosophy understands the tension between human behavior and divine commands: that while human beings can grasp natural law through reason, the rest of the realm can only be grasped through divine revelation, and that the fact of sinning does not cause any internal change in the person’s heart. This approach emphasizes that moral behavior is not simply the observance of norms, but must involve inner reflection and obedience to divine revelation.
Scotus uses the concept of causality to prove the existence of God, the First Cause. This concept plays a very important role in his metaphysical system and reflects his attempt to logically prove the existence of God. The logic is that if nothing can find the cause of its existence in itself, then if you keep tracing the cause of something, you will eventually (since you can’t repeat this argument forever) arrive at the First Cause. This shows how Scotus understood the existence of God, and how he tried to prove it.
It is said that Scotus did not provide his own proof of God’s existence. This suggests that he tried a new approach, rather than simply repeating existing proof methodologies. Unlike Aquinas, who relied too heavily on natural science, Scotus started with the possibility of causality, which reveals his philosophical originality and demonstrates his commitment to breaking out of the traditional philosophical mold. He wanted to prove God based on pure abstract possibility. This approach indicates that his metaphysics is more than just logical reasoning, but includes deep reflection on the nature of God.
