In the late Joseon Dynasty, Typwon’s Gonggeo system and the reform theories of Gao Yinmu and Huang Zonghui in China were various attempts to address the problems of the past system. Recognizing the adverse effects of the past system’s intense competition and focus on short-term results, the intention was to partially reintroduce feudal elements to promote long-term, stable bureaucratic operations.
Typwon’s Gonggeo system, a representative reform theory of the bureaucratic selection system in the late Joseon Dynasty, was intended to overcome the weaknesses of meritocratic and result-oriented talent selection, while also recognizing the problems of status inheritance. While he sought to realize his theoretical ideal society, he also sought to address the practical problems of his time. He sought to harmonize status and ability, and proposed a fairer and more efficient bureaucratic selection system through the merit system.
In China, around the 17th century, reformist theories emerged that sought to partially reintroduce feudal elements such as heredity in bureaucratic selection. Ko Yanmu proposed a meritocratic system at the top of the bureaucracy, but local officials, known as zhihun, would be allowed to hold their positions for life after a period of testing, opening the door to succession. This approach was intended to promote stability in local administration while maintaining the efficiency of the central government. Hwang Jong-hee advocated supplementing the old system by reviving the old system of “wallso,” in which local officials would invite their own officials, test them, and recommend them. He emphasized community autonomy and solidarity, which he hoped would foster community development.
These reforms didn’t come out of nowhere; there had been pressure to improve the system for hundreds of years in countries with the old system. The side effects of the examination system were a major problem with the old system. The fierce competition encouraged formalized learning for the sake of passing exams rather than in-depth study of subjects, and many talented people wasted their talents by spending long periods of their lives taking exams. There has also been skepticism about the anonymity of exams, arguing that they cannot assess character or practical skills beyond academic ability. This is not just a problem of the examination system, but a reflection on the direction and values of education in society as a whole.
Awareness of the negative effects of the old system led to a critical view of the activities of officials appointed through the old system. The meritocratic attitude was applied not only to examinations but also to the evaluation of the work of officials. Non-hereditary officials, who moved to different regions every few years, needed to perform quickly in order to be promoted, which had the side effect of emphasizing tangible, short-term results rather than pursuing policies with a long-term outlook for the community. Personal motivations were at odds with the public interest. This situation was pointed out as a problem that hindered the sustainable development of local communities due to short-term performance pressure.
A weakened sense of community was also recognized as a negative consequence of the past system. Because officials from the old system had a lower sense of community and were more career-oriented, they were less loyal to the community than the hereditary elite or locally appointed officials. This phenomenon intensified after the introduction of the past system, causing officials to focus on individual performance rather than community needs.
The nostalgia for the old system that existed throughout its lifespan was due to the difficulty of imagining any other political system, and the difficulty of securing the sense of belonging and loyalty found in personal and emotional relationships. The argument for complementing the past by introducing feudal elements was not simply retro. It was an attempt to compensate for the paradoxical situation brought about by the rational system by utilizing historical experience and the given resources of thought. These attempts reflected the will to build a more sustainable and efficient bureaucracy by compensating for the shortcomings of the past system. These reform theories emerged in the process of balancing the advantages and disadvantages of the past system and seeking a more developed system based on them.
